TOPIC 1: CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
A
chemical equation is a representation of a chemical reaction with the
help of symbols and formulae of the substances involved in the reaction.
It is a chemical shorthand for representing the reacting substance or
substances combining (the reactants) and the substance or substances
formed as a result of the reaction (the products).
chemical equation is a representation of a chemical reaction with the
help of symbols and formulae of the substances involved in the reaction.
It is a chemical shorthand for representing the reacting substance or
substances combining (the reactants) and the substance or substances
formed as a result of the reaction (the products).
A
Molecular equation is the one which shows the reactants combining and
the products formed, in their elemental or molecular forms in a chemical
reaction. An example of a molecular equation is the reaction between
sodium and water to produce sodium hydroxide solution and hydrogen gas:
Molecular equation is the one which shows the reactants combining and
the products formed, in their elemental or molecular forms in a chemical
reaction. An example of a molecular equation is the reaction between
sodium and water to produce sodium hydroxide solution and hydrogen gas:
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
In
this context, sodium (in elemental form) reacts with water (in
molecular form) to produce sodium hydroxide (in molecular form) and
hydrogen gas (in molecular form).
this context, sodium (in elemental form) reacts with water (in
molecular form) to produce sodium hydroxide (in molecular form) and
hydrogen gas (in molecular form).
Word Equations for given Chemical Reactions
Write word equations for given chemical reactions
A
word equation is a short form of expressing a chemical reaction by
word. Chemical reactions can be summarized by word equations that show
all the reactants and the products. This type of equation links together
the names of the reactants and the products. For examples, the burning
of magnesium in air to produce magnesium oxide can be represented by the
following word equation:
word equation is a short form of expressing a chemical reaction by
word. Chemical reactions can be summarized by word equations that show
all the reactants and the products. This type of equation links together
the names of the reactants and the products. For examples, the burning
of magnesium in air to produce magnesium oxide can be represented by the
following word equation:
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide
Another example is the reaction between sodium and chlorine to give sodium chloride (common salt)
Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium chloride
Equations
like these sometimes give us some information about the products formed
when different substances are reacted together. But equations can be
made even more useful by writing them using chemical symbols and
formulae.
like these sometimes give us some information about the products formed
when different substances are reacted together. But equations can be
made even more useful by writing them using chemical symbols and
formulae.
Any method for representing a chemical reaction must meet basic certain requirements. These are:
- the
chemical nature of the reactants as well as those of the products must
be clear. The reactants can be in solid, gaseous, liquid or aqueous
forms. - the mole ratios in which the products are combined and
the products are formed must be deducible. This means that atoms of the
reactants and the products must be balanced. - the direction of
the reaction must be established. This means that it should be clearly
shown which substances are the reactants and which ones are the
products. This is normally done by separating the reactants from the
products by an arrow. The arrow normally points from the reactants to
the products.
Consider the reaction between potassium and water:
2K(s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g).
In this reaction, the three requirements have been met:
- The
chemical nature of the reactants [potassium (solid); water (liquid)]
and the products [potassium hydroxide (aqueous); hydrogen (gas)] has
been shown. - The mole ratios of the reactants and products are
clearly shown: 2 moles of potassium combines with 2 moles of2water to
produce 2 moles of potassium hydroxide and one mole of hydrogen gas. - The
reactants (potassium and water) and the products (potassium hydroxide
and hydrogen) are separated by an arrow (→) which also indicates the
direction of the reaction.
HOW TO PREDICT REACTION PRODUCTS
To
predict the reaction products precisely, one needs to take into account
the type of reaction occurring. Once you identify the type of reaction
that is going to take place, then you will be in a position of telling
what possible products of reaction would be. A chemical reaction is said
to have taken place when two or more chemical substances called
reactants are converted into very different chemical substances called
products.
predict the reaction products precisely, one needs to take into account
the type of reaction occurring. Once you identify the type of reaction
that is going to take place, then you will be in a position of telling
what possible products of reaction would be. A chemical reaction is said
to have taken place when two or more chemical substances called
reactants are converted into very different chemical substances called
products.
There
are a few ways to predict the reaction products. Firstly, when the
reactants are mixed and then isolated, products can be identified.
Prediction can also be made when elements from the same group in the
Periodic Table show similar reactions. Finally, chemical reactions can
be classified into different categories such as combination (or
synthesis), decomposition, displacement, precipitation, and redox
reactions as described in details below:
are a few ways to predict the reaction products. Firstly, when the
reactants are mixed and then isolated, products can be identified.
Prediction can also be made when elements from the same group in the
Periodic Table show similar reactions. Finally, chemical reactions can
be classified into different categories such as combination (or
synthesis), decomposition, displacement, precipitation, and redox
reactions as described in details below:
Types of Chemical Reactions
When
a chemical reaction occurs, it is obvious that the changes have taken
place. However, under ordinary conditions it is not easy to see how a
reaction goes on. The neutralization of an acid solution with an alkali
produces no change that you can see. However, reaction has happened. The
temperature of the mixture increases and the new substances have formed
which can be separated and purified. Ideally, we can tell whether a
reaction has taken place if one or more of the following changes are
observed:
a chemical reaction occurs, it is obvious that the changes have taken
place. However, under ordinary conditions it is not easy to see how a
reaction goes on. The neutralization of an acid solution with an alkali
produces no change that you can see. However, reaction has happened. The
temperature of the mixture increases and the new substances have formed
which can be separated and purified. Ideally, we can tell whether a
reaction has taken place if one or more of the following changes are
observed:
(a)
heat change has taken place and can be detected by the change in
temperature of the products; (b) a precipitate is formed; (c) there is a
change in state of the reactants, i.e. gas, liquid; solid; (d) a colour
change has occurred; or (e) a gas is evolved and can be identified by
its colour, smell or by effervescence.
heat change has taken place and can be detected by the change in
temperature of the products; (b) a precipitate is formed; (c) there is a
change in state of the reactants, i.e. gas, liquid; solid; (d) a colour
change has occurred; or (e) a gas is evolved and can be identified by
its colour, smell or by effervescence.
- heat change has taken place and can be detected by the change in temperature of the products;
- a precipitate is formed;
- there is a change in state of the reactants, i.e. gas, liquid; solid;
- a colour change has occurred; or
- a gas is evolved and can be identified by its colour, smell or by effervescence.
There
are very many different chemical reactions. To make it easy to study
about these reactions, it is useful to try to group certain types of
reactions together. They may be grouped according to certain types of
phenomena which accompany them. They can further be subdivided into
categories of reactions, each of which has its unique characteristics.
Some types of chemical reactions are discussed below:
are very many different chemical reactions. To make it easy to study
about these reactions, it is useful to try to group certain types of
reactions together. They may be grouped according to certain types of
phenomena which accompany them. They can further be subdivided into
categories of reactions, each of which has its unique characteristics.
Some types of chemical reactions are discussed below:
Combination or synthesis (A + B → C)
Synthesis
reaction occurs when two or more simple substances (elements or
compounds) are combined to form one new and more complex substance. The
general form of a synthesis reaction is:
reaction occurs when two or more simple substances (elements or
compounds) are combined to form one new and more complex substance. The
general form of a synthesis reaction is:
element or compound + element or compound→ compound.
The
reaction between iron and sulphur to form iron (II) sulphide is the
best example for this kind of reaction. Iron combines directly with
sulphur to form iron (II) sulphide:
reaction between iron and sulphur to form iron (II) sulphide is the
best example for this kind of reaction. Iron combines directly with
sulphur to form iron (II) sulphide:
Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)
Another example is the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water:
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
Decomposition (A →B + C)
Decomposition
occurs when one compound breaks down into simpler substances. All
decomposition reactions have one thing in common: There is only one
reactant and it breaks down into two or more simpler products.
Decomposition can be brought about by heat, light, electricity and even
enzymes or catalysts.
occurs when one compound breaks down into simpler substances. All
decomposition reactions have one thing in common: There is only one
reactant and it breaks down into two or more simpler products.
Decomposition can be brought about by heat, light, electricity and even
enzymes or catalysts.
Decomposition by heat
Decomposition
caused by heat is termed as thermal decomposition. An example is the
decomposition of calcium carbonate (limestone) which breaks down into
calcium oxide(quicklime) and carbon dioxide gas when heated.
caused by heat is termed as thermal decomposition. An example is the
decomposition of calcium carbonate (limestone) which breaks down into
calcium oxide(quicklime) and carbon dioxide gas when heated.
Calcium carbonate → Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
Formula Equations Using Chemical Symbols
Write formula equations using chemical symbols
Essentially,
chemical reactions can be expressed in two forms. The chemical reaction
can be expressed either as a word equation or as a formula (or
symbolic) equation. We have already seen how chemical equations can be
represented by words (word equation). The formula equation makes use of
chemical symbols and formulae to represent a chemical reaction. An
example is the reaction between iron and sulphur to form iron (II)
sulphide: Fe + S → FeS
chemical reactions can be expressed in two forms. The chemical reaction
can be expressed either as a word equation or as a formula (or
symbolic) equation. We have already seen how chemical equations can be
represented by words (word equation). The formula equation makes use of
chemical symbols and formulae to represent a chemical reaction. An
example is the reaction between iron and sulphur to form iron (II)
sulphide: Fe + S → FeS
Steps for writing a chemical equation
These are the steps to follows when writing a chemical equation:
- State the reaction equation in words, for example, carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
- Write
the complete word equation using an arrow to separate the reactants
from the products: Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide. Conventionally,
the reactants are placed on the left-hand side and the products on the
right-hand side of the equation. An arrow from left to right indicates
that the reaction proceeds from reactants to products as shown. - Change the words into the correct symbols and formulae of the reactants and products: C + O2 → CO2
- Balance
the number of each type of atoms on each side of the equation.It is
important to make sure that there is equal number of each kind of atom
on the left of a chemical equation as on the right in order for your
equation to comply with the Law of Conservation of Mass (or
Indestructibility of Matter): Matter can neither be created nor
destroyed in the course of a chemical reaction. This means that the
total mass of all products of a chemical reaction is equal to the total
mass of all reactants. All atoms appearing on the left-hand side must
also be presented on the right-hand side. No atom should appear as a
product if it is not present as a reactant. - Add the state
symbols: Reactants and products may be solids, liquids, gases or
solutions. You show their state by adding state symbols to the equation.
The state symbol are, (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas and
(aq) for aqueous solution (solution in water). For the two reactions
above, the equations with the state symbols are: Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s); C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) All state symbols must be bracketed and placed as subscripts after the reactant(s) and product(s).
Balancing Chemical Equations
Balance chemical equations
A
balanced chemical equation has an equal number of atoms of different
elements of the reactants and the products on both sides of the
equation. A balanced equation gives us more information about a reaction
than we get from a simple word equation.
balanced chemical equation has an equal number of atoms of different
elements of the reactants and the products on both sides of the
equation. A balanced equation gives us more information about a reaction
than we get from a simple word equation.
Below is a step-by-step approach to working out the balanced equation for the reaction:
- Write the chemical equation for the reaction with the correct symbols and formulae of the reactant(s) and the product(s).
- Identify different atoms of the different elements of the reactant(s) and the product(s).
- Check whether these different atoms are equal on both sides of the equation. Some atoms may balance each other directly.
- Balance the atoms on each sides of the equation by Hit and Trial Method.
- Add state symbols.
Example 1
The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to produce water:
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
H2 + O2 → H2O (not balanced)
The
atoms involved in the reaction are hydrogen and oxygen. It is these
atoms that we are going to balance. The atoms must be equal on both
sides of the reaction equation. There are two hydrogen atoms on each
side of the equation. But, as you can see there are two oxygen atoms on
the left-hand side (LHS) of the equation and only one oxygen atom on the
right-hand side (RHS). To balance oxygen atoms, we write 2 before
water.
atoms involved in the reaction are hydrogen and oxygen. It is these
atoms that we are going to balance. The atoms must be equal on both
sides of the reaction equation. There are two hydrogen atoms on each
side of the equation. But, as you can see there are two oxygen atoms on
the left-hand side (LHS) of the equation and only one oxygen atom on the
right-hand side (RHS). To balance oxygen atoms, we write 2 before
water.
H2 + O2 → 2H2O (not balanced yet)
By
introducing 2 before water, another problem has been created. Now we
have 4 hydrogen atoms on the RHS but only 2 hydrogen atoms on the LHS.
To equalize the number of hydrogen atoms we write 2 before hydrogen on
the LHS.
introducing 2 before water, another problem has been created. Now we
have 4 hydrogen atoms on the RHS but only 2 hydrogen atoms on the LHS.
To equalize the number of hydrogen atoms we write 2 before hydrogen on
the LHS.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (balanced).
You
can still check to find out whether the atoms are balanced or not. Now
look at the number of atoms on each side of the equation:
can still check to find out whether the atoms are balanced or not. Now
look at the number of atoms on each side of the equation:
Now,
the number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms is the same on both sides of
the equation. This is because the atoms do not disappear during a
reaction. They are neither created nor destroyed. They obey the Law of
Conservation of Mass. When the numbers of different atoms are the same
on the both sides, an equation is said to be balanced. Once the equation
is balanced you can now add the state symbols.
the number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms is the same on both sides of
the equation. This is because the atoms do not disappear during a
reaction. They are neither created nor destroyed. They obey the Law of
Conservation of Mass. When the numbers of different atoms are the same
on the both sides, an equation is said to be balanced. Once the equation
is balanced you can now add the state symbols.
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
This gives a standard and an acceptable chemical equation.
An
equation which is not balanced is not correct. An unbalanced equation
implies that the atoms have been created or destroyed. It is therefore,
wrong and calculations based on it are certainly unreliable.
equation which is not balanced is not correct. An unbalanced equation
implies that the atoms have been created or destroyed. It is therefore,
wrong and calculations based on it are certainly unreliable.
Remember
that we cannot change the formulae of the substances involved in the
reaction. These are fixed by the bonding in the substance itself. For
instance, in attempt to balance the number of oxygen in water, H2O, we cannot write H2O2. We can only put a multiplying numbers before symbols and formulae, e.g. 2H2O.
that we cannot change the formulae of the substances involved in the
reaction. These are fixed by the bonding in the substance itself. For
instance, in attempt to balance the number of oxygen in water, H2O, we cannot write H2O2. We can only put a multiplying numbers before symbols and formulae, e.g. 2H2O.
Example 2
Hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water. The equation for the reaction is:
2H2(g) + O2(g) →2H2O(l)
- How much oxygen is needed to burn 1g of hydrogen?
- How much water is formed when 5g of hydrogen is completely burned in oxygen? (Atomic weights: H = 1, O = 16)
Solution:
a. Reaction equation:2H2(g)+ O2(g)→2H2O(l)
Atoms present: H : O
Molecular weights: 4 : 32
Reacting weights: 1g : Xg
The weight, X, of oxygen = 1×32⁄4= 8g
So, 1g of hydrogen needs 8g of oxygen
Ionic Equations
The Different Between Molecular Equations and Ionic Equations
Differentiate between molecular equations and ionic equations
Ionic
equations are equations in which the reacting substances are
represented in ionic forms after the elimination of spectator ions. In
other words, ionic equations are those equations represented in such a
way that spectator ions are not included in the final equation.
Spectator ions refer to those ions, which do not change during the
reaction i.e. they do not take part in a chemical reaction.
equations are equations in which the reacting substances are
represented in ionic forms after the elimination of spectator ions. In
other words, ionic equations are those equations represented in such a
way that spectator ions are not included in the final equation.
Spectator ions refer to those ions, which do not change during the
reaction i.e. they do not take part in a chemical reaction.
In
order to be able to derive an ionic equation from a molecular equation,
one must be acquainted with the solubility rules as outlined below:
order to be able to derive an ionic equation from a molecular equation,
one must be acquainted with the solubility rules as outlined below:
- All sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble.
- All nitrates, chlorates and acetates are soluble.
- All
binary compounds of the halogens (other than F) with metals are
soluble, except those of silver, copper, lead and mercury (lead halides
are soluble in hot water). - All sulphates are soluble except those of silver, lead, mercury (I), barium, strontium and calcium.
- All carbonates, sulphites and phosphates are insoluble except those of ammonium and alkali metal (Group I) cations.
- All hydroxides are insoluble except those of ammonium, barium and alkali metal (Group I) cations.
- All sulphides are insoluble except those of ammonium, alkali metal (Group I) cations and alkali earth metal (Group II) cations.
- All
oxides are insoluble except those of calcium, barium and alkali metal
(Group 1) cations; these soluble ones actually react with the water
(hydrolyse) to form hydroxides.
Balanced Ionic Equations
Write balanced ionic equations
Steps for writing balanced ionic equations
- Write a balanced formula equation for the reaction.
- Split
all soluble reactants and products into individual ions, clearly
indicating their state symbols. Remember that substances that exists as
molecules such as water, gasses and concentrated mineral acids,
precipitates and neutral atoms do not consist of ions and hence do not
ionize in water. - Cancel out all the ions which appear on both
sides of the equation (spectator ions). These are the ions which remain
unchanged in the reaction. - Re-write the remaining ions. This is the net ionic equation for that reaction.
Example 3
Consider the reaction for neutralization of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide.
- Step 1: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
- Step 2:H+(aq)+Cl–(aq)+Na+(aq)+OH–(aq)→ Na+(aq)+Cl–(aq) + H2O(l)
- Step 3: :H+(aq)+Cl–(aq)+Na+(aq)+OH– (aq) → Na+(aq)+Cl–(aq) + H2O(l)
- Step 4: H+(aq)+ OH–(aq) → H2O(l)
TOPIC 2: HARDNESS OF WATER
The Concept of Hardness of Water
The Concept of Hardness of Water
Explain the concept of hardness of water
As
water flows over the land, it dissolves many mineral substances. The
dissolved minerals are deposited together with water in rivers, lakes
and oceans. Water is said to be hard if it contains some specific type
of dissolved minerals. It is important to note that not all dissolved
salts make water hard.
water flows over the land, it dissolves many mineral substances. The
dissolved minerals are deposited together with water in rivers, lakes
and oceans. Water is said to be hard if it contains some specific type
of dissolved minerals. It is important to note that not all dissolved
salts make water hard.
As
you learned early, water is treated in water purification plants before
being piped to your home. The treatment removes only the insoluble
particles and kills bacteria. So the water still is not pure. It
contains natural compounds dissolved from rocks and soil. It may also
contain traces of chemicals dumped from homes, farms and factories.
you learned early, water is treated in water purification plants before
being piped to your home. The treatment removes only the insoluble
particles and kills bacteria. So the water still is not pure. It
contains natural compounds dissolved from rocks and soil. It may also
contain traces of chemicals dumped from homes, farms and factories.
Water
obtained from an area where the rocks contains chalk, limestone,
dolomite or gypsum, contains dissolved calcium and magnesium sulphates
and hydrogencarbonates. These salts make the water hard.
obtained from an area where the rocks contains chalk, limestone,
dolomite or gypsum, contains dissolved calcium and magnesium sulphates
and hydrogencarbonates. These salts make the water hard.
One
can distinguish between hard and soft water when washing with soap.
Hard water does not form lather easily. Instead, it forms a precipitate
or scum. It requires much soap to react with all the dissolved minerals
before enough lather is formed. Therefore, hard water wastes soap during
washing.
can distinguish between hard and soft water when washing with soap.
Hard water does not form lather easily. Instead, it forms a precipitate
or scum. It requires much soap to react with all the dissolved minerals
before enough lather is formed. Therefore, hard water wastes soap during
washing.
When
soap is used with hard water a “scum” forms on the surface. This is a
result of a precipitation reaction between calcium and/or magnesium ions
and soap. Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of long-chain organic
acids. Soaps are made from animal fats by treatment with alkali (NaOH
or KOH). Ordinary washing soap is a compound of stearic acid, C17H35COOH. The nature of such soaps is the salt, sodium stearate, C17H35COONa+. Sodium stearate is soluble in water but calcium stearate is not.
soap is used with hard water a “scum” forms on the surface. This is a
result of a precipitation reaction between calcium and/or magnesium ions
and soap. Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of long-chain organic
acids. Soaps are made from animal fats by treatment with alkali (NaOH
or KOH). Ordinary washing soap is a compound of stearic acid, C17H35COOH. The nature of such soaps is the salt, sodium stearate, C17H35COONa+. Sodium stearate is soluble in water but calcium stearate is not.
When
soap is mixed with hard water, the calcium or magnesium salts in the
hard water react with soap and precipitates as scum. The nature of scum
is either calcium stearate or magnesium stearate:
soap is mixed with hard water, the calcium or magnesium salts in the
hard water react with soap and precipitates as scum. The nature of scum
is either calcium stearate or magnesium stearate:
Soap
will not form any lather with water until all the calcium and magnesium
ions have been precipitated. Hard water, therefore, wastes soap. This
means that more soap may be used for an efficient washing. The amount of
soap needed to just produce froth can be used to estimate the hardness
of water.
will not form any lather with water until all the calcium and magnesium
ions have been precipitated. Hard water, therefore, wastes soap. This
means that more soap may be used for an efficient washing. The amount of
soap needed to just produce froth can be used to estimate the hardness
of water.
The
problem of scum formation only occurs with soaps. Soapless detergents
do not produce scum. The trade names for some soapy detergents sold in
Tanzania include Komoa, Kuku, Taifa, Mbuni, Mshindi, Changu, Jamaa and several other bar soaps. The trade names for some soapless detergents include Omo, Foma, Tesa, Toss, Dynamo, Swan, etc.
problem of scum formation only occurs with soaps. Soapless detergents
do not produce scum. The trade names for some soapy detergents sold in
Tanzania include Komoa, Kuku, Taifa, Mbuni, Mshindi, Changu, Jamaa and several other bar soaps. The trade names for some soapless detergents include Omo, Foma, Tesa, Toss, Dynamo, Swan, etc.
Causes of Permanent and Temporary Hardness in Water
State causes of permanent and temporary hardness in water
Water
is generally said to be hard if it contains soluble salts of calcium
and magnesium. The salts are calcium and magnesium sulphates and
hydrogencarbonates. Hardness of water is caused by higher than usual
levels of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions in water.
is generally said to be hard if it contains soluble salts of calcium
and magnesium. The salts are calcium and magnesium sulphates and
hydrogencarbonates. Hardness of water is caused by higher than usual
levels of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions in water.
As rain water passes through the atmosphere, it dissolves carbondioxide to form a weak carbonic acid.
As
this solution passes over and through rocks containing chalk, limestone
or dolomite, the rainwater very slowly dissolves them:
this solution passes over and through rocks containing chalk, limestone
or dolomite, the rainwater very slowly dissolves them:
H2CO3(aq) + CaCO3(s) → Ca(HCO3)2 (aq)
The calcium hydrogencarbonate formed is soluble in water and is responsible for the presence of calcium (Ca2+) ions in water.
Some of the rocks may contain gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), anhydrite (CaSO4), Kieserite (MgSO4.H2O) or dolomite (CaCO3. MgCO3)
which can dissolve to a limited extent in water. The presence of these
dissolved substances also causes the water to be hard. These substances
dissolve sparingly in water to form Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions which are responsible for water hardness as stated early.
which can dissolve to a limited extent in water. The presence of these
dissolved substances also causes the water to be hard. These substances
dissolve sparingly in water to form Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions which are responsible for water hardness as stated early.
Activity 1
Investigation of the causes of water hardness
Materials:
- Test tube rack-
- Five clean test tubes
- Measuring cylinder (100cm3)
- Calcium sulphate solution (1 mol dm-3)
- Soap solution
- Magnesium sulphate solution (1 mol dm-3)
- Sodium sulphate solution (1 mol dm-3)
- Potassium sulphate solution (1 mol dm-3)
- Distilled water
Procedure:
- Label five clean and dry test tubes as A, B, C, D and E. 2
- Add 10 cm3 of 1.0M calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium sulphate solutions and distilled water in each of the test tubes respectively.
- Add 5 cm3 of soap in each test tube
- Shake the test tubes well and place them in a test tube rack
- Observe the amount of lather formed in each test tube, and if there is any precipitate (scum) formed.
Results:
Results of experiment showing minerals which cause water hardness
| Test tube | Salt present | Ions present in solution of salt | Lather or scum formed? | Water hard or soft? |
| A | calcium sulphate | Ca2+, SO42- | scum is formed | Hard |
| B | magnesium sulphate | Mg2+ , SO42- | scum is formed | hard |
| C | sodium sulphate | Na+, SO42- | lather is formed | soft |
| D | potassium sulphate | K+, SO42- | lather is formed | soft |
| E | distilled water | no ions | lather is formed | soft |
Interpretation of the results
From
the result of experiment, we can conclude that scum is produced when
either calcium or magnesium salt is present in water. So, high levels of
calcium or magnesium ions in water are responsible for water hardness.
the result of experiment, we can conclude that scum is produced when
either calcium or magnesium salt is present in water. So, high levels of
calcium or magnesium ions in water are responsible for water hardness.
When the concentration of either of these minerals is over 150 milligrams per cubic decimeter (150 mg/dm3), water is considered to be hard. The upper limit allowed is 300 mg/dm3
Types of Hardness of Water
Types of Hardness of Water
Identify types of hardness of water
The
hard water in some areas can be softened simply by boiling the water,
but this is not true in all cases. This means that the hardness in water
can be divided into two types – temporary and permanent hardness.
hard water in some areas can be softened simply by boiling the water,
but this is not true in all cases. This means that the hardness in water
can be divided into two types – temporary and permanent hardness.
Temporary hardness
Temporary
hardness in water is caused by dissolved calcium or magnesium
hydrogencarbonates. The most important characteristic of temporarily
hard water is that it can be softened by simply boiling. When the water
is boiled, the soluble sodium hydrogencarbonate is decomposed to form
the insoluble calcium carbonate.
hardness in water is caused by dissolved calcium or magnesium
hydrogencarbonates. The most important characteristic of temporarily
hard water is that it can be softened by simply boiling. When the water
is boiled, the soluble sodium hydrogencarbonate is decomposed to form
the insoluble calcium carbonate.
The
decomposition causes the “furring” of kettles, hot water pipes and
shower heads. This means that the inside of kettles, pipes and shower
heads become coated with a layer of calcium carbonate (limescale) caused by the decomposition of the hydrogencarbonate according to the equation above.
decomposition causes the “furring” of kettles, hot water pipes and
shower heads. This means that the inside of kettles, pipes and shower
heads become coated with a layer of calcium carbonate (limescale) caused by the decomposition of the hydrogencarbonate according to the equation above.
In
many supermarkets, it is possible to buy a limescale remover. This is
often a solution of methanoic acid (formic acid). This weak acid is
strong enough to react with limescale but not with the metal. The
insoluble limescale (carbonate) is probably dissolved to a soluble
compound, calcium methanoate that can be flushed away with water.
many supermarkets, it is possible to buy a limescale remover. This is
often a solution of methanoic acid (formic acid). This weak acid is
strong enough to react with limescale but not with the metal. The
insoluble limescale (carbonate) is probably dissolved to a soluble
compound, calcium methanoate that can be flushed away with water.
2COOH(aq) + CaCO3(s)(insoluble)→ Ca(HCOO)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)calcium methanoate (soluble)
Permanent hardness
Permanent hardness in water is caused by soluble sulphates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium (CaSO4, MgSO4, CaCl2 and MgCl2).
This type of hardness cannot be removed by boiling the water. This is
because boiling does not decompose the chlorides of calcium or
magnesium. Such water may only be softened by chemical treatment or ion
exchange methods
This type of hardness cannot be removed by boiling the water. This is
because boiling does not decompose the chlorides of calcium or
magnesium. Such water may only be softened by chemical treatment or ion
exchange methods
The Difference between Soft and Hard Water
Differentiate soft from hard water
Activity 2
Distinction between temporarily and permanently hard water
Materials:
- Calcium carbonate
- Dilute hydrochloric acid
- 4 test tubes
- Test tube rack
- 1 litre of distilled water
- Calcium chloride
- Soap solution
- Beaker
- Heat source
Method:
- Prepare carbon dioxide gas in the laboratory by mixing calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid in a gas generator.
- Bubble
the gas through a suspension of calcium carbonate in water. Shake well
as you bubble the gas until most of calcium carbonate has dissolved.
Filter and divide the filtrate into two test tubes M and N. - Prepare a 0.5M solution of calcium chloride and divide it in two test tubes P and Q.
- Prepare soap solution in a large beaker.
- Arrange the four test tubes in a rack
- Heat the solutions in test tubes M and P to boiling. Allow them to cool.7. Add 10cm3
of the soap solution to each of the four test tubes, M, N, P and Q.
Shake well and allow to rest. Observe lathering and scum formation.
Note:
When calcium carbonate is reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid, carbon dioxide gas is produced.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
When
carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through a suspension of calcium carbonate
in water for a long time, the insoluble calcium carbonate dissolves to
give the soluble bicarbonate, the presence of which makes the water
hard.
carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through a suspension of calcium carbonate
in water for a long time, the insoluble calcium carbonate dissolves to
give the soluble bicarbonate, the presence of which makes the water
hard.
CO2(g) + CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
The
purpose of heating solutions in test tubes M and P was to try to remove
water hardness. However, only the hardness in test tube M was merely
removed by boiling because it contains the temporarily hard water.
purpose of heating solutions in test tubes M and P was to try to remove
water hardness. However, only the hardness in test tube M was merely
removed by boiling because it contains the temporarily hard water.
The
hardness in test tube P could not be removed by just boiling because it
contained the hard water. Calcium chloride cannot be decomposed by
heat. So, no change is expected after heating.
hardness in test tube P could not be removed by just boiling because it
contained the hard water. Calcium chloride cannot be decomposed by
heat. So, no change is expected after heating.
Results:
- Scum was formed in test tubes N, P and Q but P and Q contained more scum than N.
- Lather was formed in test tube M only.
- Test
tube M contained temporarily hard water and test tube P contained
permanently hard water. The hardness in test tube M was removed by
boiling while that in test tube P was not. - Test tubes P and Q contained permanently hard water. The hardness in this water could not be removed by mere boiling.
Process of Hard Water Treatment and Purification
Examine process of hard water treatment and purification
Because
of the problem it causes, hard water is often softened for use in
factories, industries and homes. That means removing the dissolved
calcium and magnesium ions. Described below are the methods of treating
and purifying hard water.
of the problem it causes, hard water is often softened for use in
factories, industries and homes. That means removing the dissolved
calcium and magnesium ions. Described below are the methods of treating
and purifying hard water.
Boiling
Boiling
removes temporary hardness in water, as you saw early. Boiling causes
calcium carbonate to precipitate. The hydrogencarbonate in water are
decomposed to carbonates, which are insoluble in water
removes temporary hardness in water, as you saw early. Boiling causes
calcium carbonate to precipitate. The hydrogencarbonate in water are
decomposed to carbonates, which are insoluble in water
In
this way, the calcium is removed, since the calcium carbonates being
insoluble, takes no further part in the reaction. An insoluble calcium
salt cannot cause hardness. However, this method uses a lot of fuel,
which makes it expensive to do on a large scale.
this way, the calcium is removed, since the calcium carbonates being
insoluble, takes no further part in the reaction. An insoluble calcium
salt cannot cause hardness. However, this method uses a lot of fuel,
which makes it expensive to do on a large scale.
Distillation
Distillation
removes all impurities from water. This gets rid of both temporary and
permanent hardness. In distillation, the water is boiled and the steam
collected, cooled and condensed. Distilled water is pure and softest
water. All the dissolved substances have been removed. Like boiling, it
is an expensive option in terms of fuel used. But it is essential for
some purposes, for example for laboratory experiments and for making
drugs.
removes all impurities from water. This gets rid of both temporary and
permanent hardness. In distillation, the water is boiled and the steam
collected, cooled and condensed. Distilled water is pure and softest
water. All the dissolved substances have been removed. Like boiling, it
is an expensive option in terms of fuel used. But it is essential for
some purposes, for example for laboratory experiments and for making
drugs.
Addition of calcium hydroxide
Addition
of calculated amounts of calcium hydroxide can remove temporary
hardness. The quantity to be added should be properly calculated because
excess would cause hardness on its own account. The amount of calcium
hydroxide to be added is calculated based on knowledge of the hardness
of water and the capacity of the reservoir (Clark’s method). The calcium
hydroxide reacts with the hydrogencarbonates dissolved in water and
precipitates as the insoluble calcium carbonates.
of calculated amounts of calcium hydroxide can remove temporary
hardness. The quantity to be added should be properly calculated because
excess would cause hardness on its own account. The amount of calcium
hydroxide to be added is calculated based on knowledge of the hardness
of water and the capacity of the reservoir (Clark’s method). The calcium
hydroxide reacts with the hydrogencarbonates dissolved in water and
precipitates as the insoluble calcium carbonates.
Ca(OH)2(s) slightly soluble + Ca(HCO3)2(aq) → 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O(l)insoluble
Addition of sodium carbonate (washing soda)
Washing
soda removes both temporary and permanent hardness by precipitating
calcium carbonate. It reacts with calcium hydrogencarbonate (which
causes temporary hardness) to form sodium hydrogencarbonate like this:
soda removes both temporary and permanent hardness by precipitating
calcium carbonate. It reacts with calcium hydrogencarbonate (which
causes temporary hardness) to form sodium hydrogencarbonate like this:
Na2CO3(aq)+ Ca(HCO3)2(aq)→ 2NaHCO3(aq))+ CaCO3(s)
It also reacts with calcium sulphate (which causes permanent hardness) to form sodium sulphate thus:Na2CO3(aq)+ CaSO4(aq)→ CaCO3(s)+ Na2SO4(aq)
These
sodium salts are soluble, but do not cause the water to be hard. The
calcium and magnesium ions are precipitated as insoluble calcium and
magnesium carbonates. Ionically, the situation is like this:
sodium salts are soluble, but do not cause the water to be hard. The
calcium and magnesium ions are precipitated as insoluble calcium and
magnesium carbonates. Ionically, the situation is like this:
Ca2+(aq)+ CO32-(aq)→ CaCO3(s)
Mg2+(aq)+ CO32-(aq)→ MgCO3(s)
Ion Exchange
Another method that removes both temporary and permanent hardness in water is the use of ion exchange resin. A typical ion exchanger
is a container full of small beads. These beads are made of special
plastic called ion exchange resin. The resin beads are porous and
contain sodium ions. When hard water flows through the resin, the
calcium and magnesium ions in the water are exchanged for the sodium
ions and attach themselves to the resin. This process, therefore,
removes calcium and magnesium ions from the water. They are replaced by
sodium ions, which do not make the water hard.
is a container full of small beads. These beads are made of special
plastic called ion exchange resin. The resin beads are porous and
contain sodium ions. When hard water flows through the resin, the
calcium and magnesium ions in the water are exchanged for the sodium
ions and attach themselves to the resin. This process, therefore,
removes calcium and magnesium ions from the water. They are replaced by
sodium ions, which do not make the water hard.
An ion exchange column removes ca2+ and mg2+ ions from the water and replaces them with Na+ ions
When
all sodium ions have been removed from the resin, it is regenerated by
pouring a concentrated solution of sodium chloride through it. The
sodium ions remove the calcium and/or magnesium ions off the resin and
the ion exchanger is ready for the use again.Other ions could also be
used instead of sodium for the resin. But sodium chloride is normally
used to supply the sodium ions because salt is cheap.
all sodium ions have been removed from the resin, it is regenerated by
pouring a concentrated solution of sodium chloride through it. The
sodium ions remove the calcium and/or magnesium ions off the resin and
the ion exchanger is ready for the use again.Other ions could also be
used instead of sodium for the resin. But sodium chloride is normally
used to supply the sodium ions because salt is cheap.
Use of softeners
Many
modern washing powders now have softeners added to them. The softeners
are often phosphates. The phosphates ions react with calcium ions to
form calcium phosphate and remove the hardness.3Ca2+(aq)+ 2PO43-(aq)→ Ca3(PO4)2(s)
modern washing powders now have softeners added to them. The softeners
are often phosphates. The phosphates ions react with calcium ions to
form calcium phosphate and remove the hardness.3Ca2+(aq)+ 2PO43-(aq)→ Ca3(PO4)2(s)
The Importance of Hard Water Treatment and Purification
Describe the importance of hard water treatment and purification
The
significance of water in daily life is well known to everyone. The
water we obtain from natural sources is never pure. It contains
dissolved minerals which render the water unfit for direct uses. The
water from some sources contains calcium and magnesium compounds
dissolved in it. These compounds are responsible for water hardness. To
make the water fit for various uses, it is imperative to remove the
hardness. The following points state why it is important to treat and
purify hard water:
significance of water in daily life is well known to everyone. The
water we obtain from natural sources is never pure. It contains
dissolved minerals which render the water unfit for direct uses. The
water from some sources contains calcium and magnesium compounds
dissolved in it. These compounds are responsible for water hardness. To
make the water fit for various uses, it is imperative to remove the
hardness. The following points state why it is important to treat and
purify hard water:
Hard
water wastes soap. To get enough lather with hard water, it requires
more soap than it does with soft water. So it is important to soften the
water in order to save the soap and hence reduce the cost of washing.
Laundry uses less soap and can be done at lower temperatures.
water wastes soap. To get enough lather with hard water, it requires
more soap than it does with soft water. So it is important to soften the
water in order to save the soap and hence reduce the cost of washing.
Laundry uses less soap and can be done at lower temperatures.
Treating
and purifying hard water eliminates the possibility of forming
limescale deposits in water boilers, kettles, washing machines, water
heaters, shower heads and dish washers. The scale formed around the
heating elements can cause the element to overheat and fail.
and purifying hard water eliminates the possibility of forming
limescale deposits in water boilers, kettles, washing machines, water
heaters, shower heads and dish washers. The scale formed around the
heating elements can cause the element to overheat and fail.
Treated
and purified water leaves no scum on clothes during washing. Scum
spoils the finishing of some fabrics. It forms nasty deposits (marks) on
clothing that has been washed.
and purified water leaves no scum on clothes during washing. Scum
spoils the finishing of some fabrics. It forms nasty deposits (marks) on
clothing that has been washed.
Softened
water has the advantage of not blocking the water pipes. In industry,
deposits of scales can block the pipes in boilers. This is a safety
hazard as it could cause pressure to build up until there is an
explosion. A similar coating can occur in hot water pipes at home and in
central heating systems.
water has the advantage of not blocking the water pipes. In industry,
deposits of scales can block the pipes in boilers. This is a safety
hazard as it could cause pressure to build up until there is an
explosion. A similar coating can occur in hot water pipes at home and in
central heating systems.
The Importance of Hard Water in Daily Life
State the importance of hard water in daily life
Hard water is not always disadvantageous. The following points explain the importance of hard water:
- The
dissolved calcium and magnesium salts improve the taste of water.
Distilled water is tasteless and quite unpleasant to drink. This is why
water-processing plants add some salts in the distilled water to make it
tasteful. - Calcium dissolved in hard water is an essential
mineral for growth of bones and teeth. It makes our teeth and bones
hard, strong and resistant to shear and pressure. - In some
places, old lead pipes are used for water supply. Lead is very
poisonous, and a little of it can dissolve in soft water. But the
carbonate (CO32-) or sulphate (SO42-)
ions present in hard water reacts with lead to form a coating of lead
carbonate or lead sulphate that prevents lead from dissolving. This
prevents lead poisoning. - A coating of calcium carbonate inside pipes, boilers and radiators helps to prevent corrosion.
- In
recent years, it has been suggested that drinking hard water helps to
prevent heart diseases. 6. It has also been found that hard water is
good for brewing beer.
CHEMISTRY FORM THREE ALL TOPICS
CHEMISTRY FORM THREE TOPIC 1 & 2.
CHEMISTRY FORM THREE TOPIC 3 & 4.
CHEMISTRY FORM THREE TOPIC 5 & 6.
CHEMISTRY FORM THREE TOPIC 7.
CHEMISTRY FORM THREE TOPIC 8.
O’LEVEL CHEMISTRY
CHEMISTRY STUDY NOTES, FORM FOUR.
CHEMISTRY STUDY NOTES, FORM THREE.
CHEMISTRY STUDY NOTES, FORM TWO.
CHEMISTRY STUDY NOTES FORM ONE.
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